Appearance

According to Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Güyük was of "medium stature, very prudent and extremely shrewd, and serious and sedate in his manners."

Early life

Güyük received military training and served as an officer under his grandfather Genghis Khan and later his father Ögedei Khan (after the death of Genghis in 1227). He married Oghul Qaimish of the Merkit clan. In 1233, Güyük, along with his maternal cousin Alchidai and the Mongol general Tangghud, conquered the short-lived Dongxia Kingdom of Puxian Wannu, who was a rebellious Jin official, in a few months. After the death of Güyük's uncle Tolui, Ögedei proposed that Sorghaghtani, the widow of Tolui, marry his son Güyük. Sorghaghtani declined, saying that her prime responsibility was to her own sons.

Güyük participated in the invasion of Eastern and Central Europe in 1236–1241 with other Mongol princes, including his cousin Batu and half-brother Kadan. He led his corps in the Siege of Ryazan and the lengthy siege of the Ossetian capital Maghas. During the course of the conquest, Güyük quarreled violently with Batu at the victory banquet and screamed at him, "Batu is just an old woman with a quiver". Güyük and Büri, a grandson of Chagatai, stormed out of the banquet and rode away swearing and cursing. When word reached the Great Khan, they were recalled for a time to Mongolia. Ögedei refused to see them and threatened to have his son Güyük executed. Ögedei calmed down and finally admitted Güyük into his ger. Ögedei criticized Güyük, "Do you think that the Russians surrendered because how mean you were to your own men. ...Because you captured one or two warriors, you think that you won the war. But you didn't capture even a single kid goat." Ögedei reprimanded his son harshly for fighting within the family and for mistreating his soldiers. Güyük was dispatched again to Europe.

In the meantime, Ögedei had died (in 1241), and his widow Töregene had taken over as regent, a position of great influence and authority that she used to advocate for her son Güyük. Batu withdrew from Europe so that he might have some influence over the succession, but despite his delaying tactics, Töregene succeeded in getting Güyük elected Khan in 1246. When Genghis Khan's youngest brother, Temüge, threatened the Great Khatun Toregene in an attempt to seize the throne, Güyük came to Mongolia from Emil to secure his position immediately.

Enthronement (1246)

Güyük's enthronement on 24 August 1246, near the Mongol capital at Karakorum, was attended by a large number of foreign ambassadors: the Franciscan friar and envoy of Pope Innocent IV, John of Plano Carpini and Benedict of Poland; Grand Duke Yaroslav II of Vladimir; the incumbents for the throne of Georgia; the brother of the king of Armenia and historian, Sempad the Constable; the future Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kilij Arslan IV; and ambassadors of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim and Ala ud din Masud of the Delhi Sultanate. According to John of Plano Carpini, Güyük's formal election in a great kurultai, or diet of the tribes, took place while his company was at a camp called Sira Orda, or "Yellow Pavilion," along with 3,000 to 4,000 visitors from all parts of Asia and eastern Europe, bearing homage, tribute, and presents. They afterwards witnessed the formal enthronement at another camp in the vicinity called the "Golden Ordu," after which they were presented to the emperor. Mosul submitted to him, sending envoys to that assembly.

When the papal envoy John of Plano Carpini protested Mongol attacks on the Catholic kingdoms of Europe, Güyük stated that these people had slain Mongol envoys in the time of Genghis Khan and Ogedei Khan. He also claimed that "from the rising of the sun to its setting, all the lands have been made subject to the Great Khan", proclaiming an explicit ideology of world conquest. The Khagan wrote a letter to Pope Innocent IV on the relations between the Church and the Mongols. "You must say with a sincere heart: 'We will be your subjects; we will give you our strength'. You must in person come with your kings, all together, without exception, to render us service and pay us homage. Only then will we acknowledge your submission. And if you do not follow the order of God, and go against our orders, we will know you as our enemy."

By this time, the relationship between Güyük and Toregene had deteriorated significantly, despite Toregene's role in Güyük's accession. Against Toregene's wishes, Güyük had Toregene's favorite, Fatima, arrested, tortured and executed for bewitching his brother Koden (Khuden), and Abd-ur-Rahman was also beheaded for corruption. Of the provincial officials appointed under Toregene, only the Oirat official Arghun Aqa remained. Toregene herself died later, possibly at Güyük's orders. Güyük had Temüge's case investigated by Orda Khan and Möngke, and they had him executed. Güyük replaced the child khan Qara Hülëgü of the Chagatai Khanate with his favorite cousin Yesü Möngke to secure his position. He also restored his father's officials, Mahmud Yalavach, Masud Beg and Chinqai to positions in the provinces.

Reign (1246–1248)

Güyük reversed several unpopular edicts of his mother the regent and made a surprisingly capable khan, appointing Eljigidei in Persia in preparation for an attack on Baghdad and the Ismailis and pursuing the war against the Song Dynasty. He was, nevertheless, insecure and won the disapproval of his subjects by executing several high-ranking officials of the previous regime for treason. The Seljuk princes struggled incessantly for the throne of the Sultanate of Rum. Despised by Izz-ad-Din, Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan IV came to Mongolia. Güyük ordered Rukn ad-Din enthroned in Iz-ad-Din Kaykaus II's place. A darughachi with 2,000 Mongol troops was sent to enforce this decision. When both David Narin and David Ulu summoned before Güyük in Karakorum, he made David Ulu the senior king and divided the Kingdom of Georgia between them. After the treaty signed by the Mongols and the Cilician Armenia in 1243, the king Hetoum I sent his brother Sempad to the Mongol court in Karakorum and made a formal agreement in 1247 in which Cilician Armenia would be considered a vassal state of the Mongol Empire. Due to Armenia's voluntary surrender, Sempad received a Mongol wife, and his kingdom was spared Mongol overseers and tax. Güyük demanded full-submission of the Abbasids and the Ismailis. Güyük Khan blamed Baiju for the irritated resistance of the Abbasid Caliphate.

Güyük ordered an empire-wide census. In 1246, by the decree of Güyük, taxes amounting between to of value were imposed on everything and a heavy head tax of 60 silver drams was collected from males in Georgia and Armenia. The Great Khan separated the position of the great darughachi from that of chief scribe. Güyük took half of his father's kheshig for himself. Under his rule, the Uyghur officials increased their dominance, sidelining the North Chinese and the Muslims. Güyük was a strict and intelligent person, though rather morose and sickly, and his bad drinking habit worsened his health.

Güyük sent Amuqan to Korea and the Mongols camped near Yiom-ju in July 1247. After the king Gojong of Goryeo refused to move his capital from Ganghwa Island to Songdo, Amuqan's force pillaged the Korean Peninsula until 1250.

Although Batu did not support Güyük's election, he respected the Great Khan as a traditionalist and sent Andrey and Alexander Nevsky to Karakorum in Mongolia in 1247 after their father's death. Güyük appointed Andrey Grand prince of Vladimir-Suzdal and Alexander prince of Kiev. In 1248, he demanded Batu come towards Mongolia to meet him, a move that some contemporaries regarded as a pretext for Batu's arrest. In compliance with the order, Batu approached bringing a large army. When Güyük moved westwards, Sorghaghtani warned Batu that the Jochids might be his target.

The showdown never happened – Güyük died en route, in modern-day Qinghe County, Xinjiang, China. Güyük might have been poisoned, but some modern historians believe that he died of natural causes because his health deteriorated. According to William of Rubruck he was killed in a violent brawl with Shiban. His widow Oghul Qaimish took over as regent, but she would be unable to keep the succession within her branch of the family. Möngke succeeded as Khan in 1251.

Wives, concubines, and children

It was common for powerful Mongol men to have many wives and concubines, but it is unknown how many wives or concubines Güyük had.

With Oghul Qaimish (principal wife):

• Khoja

• Naqu

Unknown wife or concubine:

• Khokhoo

Legacy

Genghis Khan's sons and grandsons were haunted by alcoholism, a vice that Genghis himself had detested. Despite this, Genghis himself once remarked that it was not realistic to expect a man not to get drunk on occasion.

The death of Güyük had a profound effect on world history. Güyük wanted to turn the Mongol power against Europe, but Güyük's premature death prevented Mongol forces from moving further into Western Europe. Subsequent to Güyük's death, Mongol family politics caused the Mongol efforts to be instead directed against southern China, which was eventually conquered during the rule of Kublai Khan.

Güyük's reign showed that the split between Batu's line, the descendants of Jöchi, and the rest of the family was the fatal flaw in the unity of all the Mongol Empire. Oghul Qaimish, whom Möngke had called "more contemptible than a bitch" to a European visitor, was executed after Batu and Möngke effected the family coup.

When Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in 1271, he had Güyük Khan placed on the official record as Dingzong.

生平

早年參加征伐金朝，俘虜了其親王；又曾經參與西征歐洲。蒙古帝國第三任大汗貴由、第四任大汗蒙哥，以及後來的元朝開國皇帝忽必烈，堂兄弟三人都是蒙古第二次西征時拔都的部下。

1241年12月11日，窩闊台去世，汗位虛懸，貴由的母親乃馬真脫列哥那稱制，法紀混亂，很多宗王貴族濫發牌符征斂財物，唯有拖雷家族沒有這樣做，贏得了聲譽。乃馬真後欲立長子貴由為大汗，拔都與貴由不和，一直不肯參加選汗大會，後來，成吉思汗幼弟鐵木哥斡赤斤也領兵來爭位，帝國面臨汗位爭奪戰和混亂的危險。拖雷的遺孀唆魯禾帖尼決定率諸子參加忽里勒台大會，1246年8月24日，宗王大臣們擁立貴由登基，貴由成為大蒙古國大汗，「全體宗王們脫帽，解開寬腰帶，把貴由扶上金王位，以汗號稱呼他，到會者對新君九拜表示歸順，在帳外的藩王及外國使臣等也同時跪拜稱賀。」

貴由登基後，雖然本人很有權威，但是因沉湎酒色、手足痙攣，並沒有什麼作為，且不理政事，多委于下臣。

1248年春，貴由親率大軍西征拔都，至橫相乙兒（今新疆青河縣東南）病死。一說被拔都系勢力毒殺。

1246年8月24日至1248年4月20日在位，在位僅一年零八個月。

和羅馬教宗的交往

貴由在位期間和羅馬教宗有交往。歐洲諸國傳言蒙古大汗信仰基督教，因此教宗諾森四世派遣若望·柏郎嘉賓出使，希望勸說蒙古大汗不要傷害基督徒，同時要他深入了解蒙古人的風土民情、作戰方式等。1245年4月16日從法國里昂出發，途經神聖羅馬帝國、波蘭王國和基輔羅斯等國（他于1246年2月3日離開基輔）。1246年4月4日，他在伏爾加河下游的薩萊（今伏爾加河下游阿斯特拉罕附近）受到欽察汗拔都的接見。拔都派他去蒙古草原見大汗，他經過訛答剌、伊犁河下游、葉密立河—翻越阿爾泰山，向東抵達蒙古草原。

1246年7月22日，他抵達距離哈拉和林只有半天路程的地方，選舉大汗的忽里勒台大會正在此召開。他目睹了1246年8月24日貴由的當選，並留下了對貴由的生動描述：「在他當選時，約有四十，最多四十五歲。他是中等身材，非常聰明．極為精明，舉止極為嚴肅莊重。從來沒有看見他放聲大笑，或者是尋歡作樂。」 最後他未能說服貴由皈依天主教，得到貴由的回信後，于1246年11月13日離開蒙古草原，向西踏上歸途，經伏爾加河下游的拔都駐地返回西方，1247年9月5日他到達拔都駐地，又經基輔返回西方。

涼州會盟與吐蕃歸附

1247年，吐蕃諸部宗教界領袖薩迦班智達·貢嘎堅贊（簡稱薩班）同大蒙古國皇子西涼王闊端（貴由之弟，窩闊台之子，成吉思汗之孫）在涼州(今中國甘肅武威市)議定了吐蕃歸附的條件，其中包括呈獻圖冊，交納貢物，接受派官設治，吐蕃地區納入大蒙古國(蒙古帝國)治下，史稱「涼州會盟」。

窩闊台家族的衰落

1246年 貴由致英諾森四世的信件

根據《新元史》記載，1248年農曆三月（1248年4月），貴由以養病為名帶兵西巡，途中病逝于橫相乙兒（今新疆青河東南），距離別失八里一天路程。

貴由死後，其遺孀斡兀立海迷失臨朝稱制，由於貴由與拔都早年不和，拔都拒絕奔喪。為了對抗窩闊台家族，拔都以長支宗王的身份遣使邀請宗王、大臣到他在中亞草原的駐地召開忽里台，商議推舉新大汗。窩闊台系和察合台系的宗王們多數拒絕前往，海迷失後只派大臣八剌為代表到會。唆魯禾帖尼則命長子蒙哥率諸弟及家臣應召前往。

1250年，庫力臺大會在中亞地區拔都的駐地召開，拔都在會上極力稱讚蒙哥能力出眾，又有西征大功，應當即位，並指出貴由之立違背了窩闊台遺命（窩闊台遺命失烈門即位），窩闊台後人無繼承汗位的資格。大會通過了拔都的提議，推舉蒙哥為大汗。窩闊台、察合台兩家拒不承認，唆魯禾帖尼和蒙哥又遣使邀集各支宗王到斡難河畔召開忽里台，拔都派其弟別兒哥率大軍隨同蒙哥前往斡難河畔，但窩闊台、察合台兩家很多宗王仍不肯應召，大會拖延了很長時間。

由于蒙哥的母親唆魯禾帖尼的威望甚高，並且善于籠絡宗王貴族，多數宗王大臣最終應召前來，1251年農曆六月在蒙古草原斡難河畔舉行庫力臺大會，元憲宗元年農曆六月十一日（1251年7月1日），宗王大臣們共同擁戴蒙哥即大汗位。此後，為了鞏固汗位，唆魯禾帖尼在鎮壓反對者時毫不留情，並親自下令處死貴由的皇后斡兀立海迷失。

自此汗位繼承，便由窩闊台家族轉移到了拖雷家族，皇族內部的分裂，為後來大蒙古國的徹底分裂，埋下伏筆。

家庭

妻妾

• 元妃烏兀兒黑迷失，姓蔑兒乞氏，貴由稱帝前的元妃，卒年不詳

• 三皇后海迷失，1266年元世祖忽必烈上謚號欽淑皇后

• 乃蠻真皇后（窩闊台六皇后朵列格捏之妹）

兒子

• 長子 忽察太子，子完者也不干

• 次子 腦忽太子，無子

• 三子 禾忽大王，子禿魯，1272年元世祖封為南平王，賜龜紐銀印

女兒

• 趙國公主 葉里迷失，下嫁君不花

• 公主 巴巴哈爾，下嫁火赤哈爾的斤

相關史料

• 《史集》，蒙古帝國伊兒汗國史學家拉施特撰寫。

• 《世界征服者史》，蒙古帝國伊兒汗國史學家志費尼撰寫。

• 《元史·定宗本紀》 ，明朝官修正史

• 《新元史·定宗本紀》 ，民國官修正史

• 《續資治通鑑》，清朝史學家畢沅撰寫。

• 《元史類編》，清朝史學家邵遠平撰寫。

• 《元史新編》，清朝史學家魏源撰寫。

• 《元書》，清朝史學家曾廉撰寫。

• 《蒙兀兒史記》，清末民初史學家屠寄撰寫。

評價

• 明朝官修正史《元史》宋濂等的評價是：「三年戊申春三月，帝崩于橫相乙兒之地。……是歲大旱，河水盡涸，野草自焚，牛馬十死八九，人不聊生。諸王及各部又遣使于燕京迤南諸郡，徵求貨財、弓矢、鞍轡之物，或于西域回鶻索取珠璣，或于海東樓取鷹鶻，馹騎絡繹，晝夜不絕，民力益困。然自壬寅以來，法度不一，內外離心，而太宗之政衰矣。」

• 清朝史學家畢沅《續資治通鑑》的評價是：「自太宗皇后稱制以來，法度不一，內外離心。至是國內大旱，河內盡涸，野草自焚，牛馬死者十八九，人不聊生。諸王及各部，又遣使于諸郡徵求貨財，或于西蕃、回鶻索取珠璣，或于東海搜取鷹、鶻、驛騎絡繹，晝夜不絕，民力益困。皇后立庫春子實勒們聽政，諸王大臣多不服。」

• 清朝史學家魏源《元史新編》的評價是：「連歲大旱，河水盡涸，野草自焚，牛馬十死八九，人不聊生。諸王及各部又遣使于燕京迤南諸郡，徵求貨財，或于西域、回鶻索取珠璣，或于海東搜取鷹鶻，驛騎不絕，內外離心，故無可紀。然自太祖崩後，拖雷監國者一年，太宗崩後，六皇后稱制者四年，定宗之後，皇后臨朝者又幾四年，前後凡九載無君而國不亂，卒能創業垂統，上竝漢、唐者，則皆宗王宿將維持拱衛，根幹蟠據之力。」

• 清朝史學家曾廉《元書》的評價是：「論曰：定宗之世，事多缺漏，而前史曰：『 帝崩之歲大旱，河水盡涸，野草自焚，牛馬十死八九，人不聊生。諸王及各部又遣使于燕京迤南諸部，徵求貨財、弓矢、鞍轡，或于西域回鶻索取珠璣，海東索取鷹鶻，驛騎絡繹，晝夜不絕，民力益困。然自壬寅以來，法度不一，內外離心，而太宗之政衰矣。』其言壬寅，蓋以昭慈皇后稱制時言之也。夫定宗即位時，年四十矣，而不能輯諸王侯大將，紀解威褻，此太宗之不謀付以匕圖者乎？然在于漢亦孝惠之亞也。惟無良臣為之輔弼，而宗藩黨羽遂成，以奪皇阼。炎異之叢，興其足信耶？而失烈門則太宗遺詔所立也。前史複曰：定宗崩後，三歲無君。蒙哥之黨之不欲以為君，非蒙古之無君也。竄之北陲，並逐太宗皇后而弒定宗皇后，可不謂之逆哉！自是而太宗子孫亦不欲以蒙哥兄弟為君，逮于海都，而中原震矣。」

• 中華民國史學家屠寄《蒙兀兒史記》的評價是：「汗嚴重有威，臨御未久，不及設施，惟乃蠻真可敦稱制時，威福下移，汗既親政，綱紀粗立，君權複尊，自幼多疾，成吉思汗嘗命亦魯王之祖忽魯扎克為之主膳。中年性好酒色，手足有拘攣之病，在位之日，常以疾不視事，事多決于大臣鎮海、合答二人云。」

• 中華民國官修正史《新元史》柯劭忞的評價是：「史臣曰：定宗誅奧部拉合蠻，用鎮海、耶律鑄，賞罰之明，非太宗所及。又乃馬真皇后之弊政，皆為帝所鏟革。舊史不詳考其事，謂前人之業自帝而衰，誣莫其矣。」

紀年

根據《元史·定宗本紀》整理。

影視作品

• 2005年中國電影《月圓涼州》