Background

The Tokugawa shogunate had established itself in the early 17th century. Under its rule, the shōgun governed Japan. About 180 lords, known as daimyōs, ruled autonomous realms under the shōgun, and occasionally the shōgun called upon the daimyōs for gifts but did not tax them. The shōgun controlled the daimyōs in other ways too; only the shōgun could approve daimyōs marriages, and the shōgun could divest a daimyō of his lands.

Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had officially retired from his position by 1605, was the first Tokugawa shōgun. Upon retirement, Tokugawa Ieyasu and his son Tokugawa Hidetada, the titular shōgun, issued a code of behavior for the nobility in 1605. Under the code, the Emperor was required to devote his time to scholarship and the arts. The Emperors under the shogunate appear to have adhered closely to this code by studying Confucian classics and devoting time to poetry and calligraphy. Emperors were taught only the rudiments of Japanese and Chinese history and geography. The shōgun did not seek the consent or advice of the Emperor for his actions.

Emperors almost never left their palace compound, or Gosho in Kyoto, except after an Emperor retired or to take shelter in a temple if the palace caught on fire. Few Emperors lived long enough to retire; of the Meiji Emperor's five predecessors, only his grandfather lived into his forties, dying aged forty-six. The Imperial Family suffered very high rates of infant mortality; all five of the Emperor's brothers and sisters died as infants, and only five of his own 15 children reached adulthood.

Soon after taking control in the early seventeenth century, shogunate officials (known generically as bakufu) ended almost all Western trade with Japan, and barred Christian missionaries from the islands under the Sakoku Edict of 1635. In addition to the substantial Chinese trade, only the Dutch continued trade with Japan, maintaining a post on the island of Dejima by Nagasaki. However, by the early 19th century, European and American vessels appeared in the waters around Japan with increasing frequency.

Consanguineous marriages are common in the early history of Japanese upper class as a way to protect the ideal or royal bloodline; however, this came with unexpected consequences. Unknown to him at the time, Meiji also had hereditary diseases that were the result of inbreeding. These genetic defects included but were not limited to mandibular prognathism and spinal deformation, which could also be found in his children.

Apart from the congenital diseases, Meiji also suffered from beriberi caused by malnutrition, particularly a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1). The imperial family had a poorer diet than that of average people due to religious reasons. Due to beriberi, he could barely walk.

He had fifteen children with his concubines. Ten of them died prematurely. Prince Yoshihito (later Emperor Taishō) was the only male heir who reached adulthood, but his body and mind were weak, and suffered from meningitis, diabetes, cerebral thrombosis and mental illness.

Early life

Prince Mutsuhito was born on 3 November 1852 in a small house on his maternal grandfather's property at the north end of the Gosho. At the time, birth was culturally believed to be a source of pollution, so the imperial prince was not born in the Palace. Instead, it was common for members of the Imperial Family to be born in a structure, often temporary, near the pregnant woman's father's house. The Prince Mutsuhito's mother, Nakayama Yoshiko, was a concubine (権の典侍|gon no tenji) to his father Emperor Kōmei, and she was the daughter of the acting major counselor, Nakayama Tadayasu. The young prince was given the name Sachinomiya, or Prince Sachi.

The young prince was born into an era of great change in Japan. This change was symbolised dramatically in July 1853 when Commodore Matthew Perry and his American Naval squadron (what the Japanese dubbed "the Black Ships"), sailed into the harbour at Edo (known since 1868 as Tokyo). Perry sought to open Japan up to international trade and warned the Japanese of military consequences if they did not agree. For the first time in at least 250 years, the shogunate took the highly unusual step of consulting with the Imperial Court because of the crisis brought on by Perry's arrival. Emperor Kōmei's officials advised that they felt they should agree to trade with the Americans and asked that they be informed in advance of any steps to be taken upon Perry's return. The Japanese government decided that their military was no match for the American military and thus allowed trade and submitted to what it dubbed the "Unequal Treaties". "Unequal Treaties" meant giving up tariff authority and the right to try foreigners in its own courts. The shogunate's willingness to consult with the Court was short-lived: in 1858, word of a treaty arrived with a letter stating that due to shortness of time, it had not been possible to consult. Emperor Kōmei was so incensed that he threatened to abdicate—though even this action would have required the consent of the shōgun.

Much of the Emperor's boyhood is known only through later accounts, which his biographer Donald Keene points out are often contradictory. One contemporary described Mutsuhito as healthy and strong, somewhat of a bully, and exceptionally talented at sumo. Another states that the prince was delicate and often ill. Some biographers state that he fainted when he first heard gunfire, while others deny this account. On 16 August 1860, Sachinomiya was proclaimed prince of the blood and heir to the throne and was formally adopted by his father's consort. Later that year on 11 November, he was proclaimed as the crown prince and given an adult name, Mutsuhito. The prince began his education at the age of seven. He proved an indifferent student, and later in life wrote poems regretting that he had not applied himself more in writing practice.

Reign

Unrest and accession

By the early 1860s, the shogunate was under several threats. Representatives of foreign powers sought to increase their influence in Japan. Many daimyōs were increasingly dissatisfied with bakufu handling foreign affairs. Large numbers of young samurai, known as shishi or "men of high purpose", began to meet and speak against the shogunate. The shishi revered Emperor Kōmei and favoured direct violent action to cure societal ills. While they initially desired the death or expulsion of all foreigners, the shishi would later begin to advocate the modernisation of the country. The bakufu enacted several measures to appease the various groups in an effort to drive a wedge between the shishi and daimyōs.

Kyoto was a major centre for the shishi and the shishi had influence over the Emperor Kōmei. In 1863, the shishi persuaded him to issue an "Order to expel barbarians". The Order placed the shogunate in a difficult position since they had no intention of enforcing the order because they did not have the power to carry it out. Several attacks were made on foreigners or their ships, and foreign forces retaliated. Bakufu forces were able to drive most of the shishi out of Kyoto, and an attempt by them to return in 1864 was driven back. Nevertheless, unrest continued throughout Japan.

The prince's awareness of the political turmoil is uncertain. During this time, he studied waka poetry, first with his father, then with the court poets. In 1866, a new shōgun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, took office as the prince continued his classical education. Tokugawa Yoshinobu was a reformer who desired to transform Japan into a Western-style state. Yoshinobu was the final shōgun and met with resistance from among the bakufu, even as unrest and military actions continued. In mid-1866, a bakufu army set forth to punish rebels in southern Japan. The army was defeated.

Emperor Kōmei fell seriously ill at his age of 36 and died on 30 January 1867. British diplomat Sir Ernest Satow wrote, "it is impossible to deny that Kōmei's disappearance from the political scene, leaving as his successor a boy of fifteen or sixteen fourteen, was most opportune".

In a brief ceremony in Kyoto, the crown prince formally ascended to the throne on 3 February 1867. The new Emperor continued his classical education, which did not include matters of politics. In the meantime, the shōgun, Yoshinobu, struggled to maintain power. He repeatedly asked for the Emperor's confirmation of his actions, which he eventually received, but there is no indication that the young Emperor was himself involved in the decisions. The shishi and other rebels continued to shape their vision of the new Japan, and although they revered the Emperor, they had no thought of having him play an active part in the political process.

The political struggle reached its climax in late 1867. An agreement was reached by which Yoshinobu would maintain his title and some of his power, but the lawmaking power would be vested in a bicameral legislature based on the British model. The agreement fell apart and on 9 November 1867, Yoshinobu officially tendered his resignation to the Emperor and formally stepped down ten days later. The following month, the rebels marched on Kyoto, taking control of the Imperial Palace. On 4 January 1868, the Emperor ceremoniously read out a document before the court proclaiming the "restoration" of Imperial rule, and the following month, documents were sent to foreign powers:

The Emperor of Japan announces to the sovereigns of all foreign countries and to their subjects that permission has been granted to the shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu to return the governing power in accordance with his own request. We shall henceforward exercise supreme authority in all the internal and external affairs of the country. Consequently, the title of Emperor must be substituted for that of Tycoon, in which the treaties have been made. Officers are being appointed by us to the conduct of foreign affairs. It is desirable that the representatives of the treaty powers recognize this announcement.Mutsuhito

In a conflict known as the Boshin War, Yoshinobu briefly resisted and bakufu holdouts were finally defeated in late 1869. In the ninth month of the following year, the era was changed to Meiji, or "enlightened rule", which was later used for the Emperor's posthumous name. This marked the beginning of the custom of posthumously naming the Emperor after the era during which he ruled.

Consolidation of power

Despite the ouster of the bakufu, no effective central government had been put in place by the rebels. On 23 March, foreign envoys were first permitted to visit Kyoto and pay formal calls on the Emperor. On 7 April 1868, the Emperor was presented with the Charter Oath, a five-point statement of the nature of the new government. The statement was designed to win over those who had not yet committed themselves to the new regime. This document, which the Emperor then formally promoted, abolished feudalism and proclaimed a modern democratic government for Japan. The Charter Oath would later be cited by Emperor Hirohito in the Humanity Declaration as support for the imposed changes in Japanese government following World War II. For the first time since early childhood, he left the Imperial precincts in Kyoto in mid-May to take command of the forces pursuing the remnants of the bakufu armies. Traveling in slow stages due to through roads being lined with crowds, he took three days to travel from Kyoto to Osaka. There was no conflict in Osaka; the new leaders wanted the Emperor to be more visible to his people and to foreign envoys. At the end of May, after two weeks in Osaka (in a much less formal atmosphere than in Kyoto), the Emperor returned to his home. Shortly after his return, it was announced that the Emperor would begin to preside over all state business, reserving further literary study for his leisure time. Only from 1871 onward did the Emperor's studies include materials on contemporary affairs.

On 19 September 1868, the Emperor announced the name of the city of Edo was to be changed to Tokyo, meaning "eastern capital". He was formally crowned in Kyoto on 15 October (a ceremony which had been postponed from the previous year due to the civil unrest). Shortly before the coronation, he announced that the new era, or nengō, would be called Meiji or "enlightened rule". Heretofore the nengō had often been changed multiple times in an Emperor's reign; from now on, it was announced, there would only be one nengō per reign.

Soon after his coronation, the Emperor journeyed to Tokyo by road, visiting it for the first time. He arrived in late November and began an extended stay by distributing sake among the population. The population of Tokyo was eager for an Imperial visit. Tokyo had been the site of the shōguns court and the city's population feared that with the abolition of the shogunate, the city might fall into decline. It would not be until 1889 that a final decision was made to move the capital to Tokyo. While in Tokyo, the Emperor boarded a Japanese naval vessel for the first time, and the following day gave instructions for studies to see how Japan's navy could be strengthened. Soon after his return to Kyoto, a rescript was issued in the Emperor's name (but most likely written by court officials). It indicated his intent to be involved in government affairs. And indeed he attended cabinet meetings and innumerable other government functions, though rarely speaking, almost until the day of his death.

Political reform

The successful revolutionaries organized themselves into a Council of State, and subsequently into a system where three main ministers led the government. This structure would last until the establishment of a prime minister, who would lead a cabinet in a western fashion, in 1885. Initially, not even the retention of the Emperor was certain; revolutionary leader Gotō Shōjirō later stated that some officials "were afraid the extremists might go further and abolish the Mikado". Japan's new leaders sought to reform the patchwork system of domains governed by the daimyōs. In 1869, several of the daimyōs who had supported the revolution gave their land property to the Emperor and were reappointed as governors, with considerable salaries. By the following year, all other daimyōs had followed suit.

In 1871, as Japan was organized into 72 prefectures the Emperor announced that domains were entirely abolished. The daimyōs were compensated with annual salaries equal to ten percent of their former revenues (from which they now did not have to deduct the cost of governing), but were required to move to the new capital, Tokyo. Most daimyōs retired from politics.

The new administration gradually abolished most privileges of the samurai, including their right to a stipend from the government. However, unlike the daimyōs, many samurai suffered financially from this change. Most other class-based distinctions were abolished. Legalized discrimination against the burakumin ended. However, these classes continue to suffer discrimination in Japan to the present time.

The 1889 constitution created a new parliament, although it had no real power. Power had passed from the Tokugawa into the hands of those daimyōs and other samurai who had led the Restoration. Japan was thus controlled by the Genrō, an oligarchy which comprised the most powerful men of the military, political and economic spheres. The Emperor showed greater political longevity than his recent predecessors, as he was the first Japanese monarch to remain on the throne past the age of 50 since the abdication of Emperor Ōgimachi in 1586.

The Japanese take pride in the Meiji Restoration, as it and the accompanying industrialization allowed Japan to become the preeminent power in the Pacific and a major player in the world within a generation. Yet, Emperor Meiji's role in the Restoration, as well as the amount of personal authority and influence he wielded during his reign, remains debatable. He kept no diary, wrote almost no letters (unlike his father) and left "no more than three or four" photographs. The accounts of people who had met or were close to him usually contain little substantial information or are mutually contradictory.

Due to the lack of reliable sources of the period, mysteries surrounding Emperor Meiji's personality and role in the Restoration remain a matter of historical dispute. James C. Baxter argues that the Emperor was a figurehead without real power who rarely interfered with what had been agreed upon in advance by the Meiji oligarchy. Conversely, Herbert Bix describes Meiji as a powerful autocrat whom the Genrō struggled to restrain while accommodating his anti-democratic inclinations. R.Starr characterizes Meiji as a highly individualistic and forthright person who was no puppet to any group in his government, and although progressive, not 'liberal' or 'democratic'. Yet another group of historians contend he was never a full dictator, but remain divided on whether his personal power was "far closer to the absolutist end" or he merely played a mediating role in the Genrō's decisionmaking.

He composed the following poem in waka form:

:

:

:

:Yomo no umi

:mina harakara to

:omofu yo ni

:nado namikaze no

:tachi sawaguramu

:The seas of the four directions—

:all are born of one womb:

:why, then, do the wind and waves rise in discord?

This poem was later recited by his grandson, Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito), in an Imperial Conference in September 1941, before the Attack on Pearl Harbor.

The Illustrated London News published an article with a cover illustration of Emperor Meiji in the New-York Tribune on 19 March 1905. The description text said:

The victorious Emperor of Japan - beloved ruler of a new world power. The Emperor, who was born on 3 November 1852, succeeded to the throne on 3 February 1867, on the suppression of the Shogun dynasty, which had for generations wielded the power which the imperial family held only in name. Mutsuhito has proved the most practical of modern monarchs, for in less than forty years he has brought his country from semi-barbarism to the status of a first class power.

Senior life and death

Near the end of his life several anarchists, including Shūsui Kōtoku, were executed (1911) on charges of having conspired to murder the sovereign. This conspiracy was known as the High Treason Incident (1910).

Emperor Meiji, suffering from diabetes, nephritis, and gastroenteritis, died of uremia. Although the official announcement said he died at 00:42 on 30 July 1912, the actual death was at 22:40 on 29 July.

By 1912, Japan had gone through a political, economic, and social revolution and emerged as one of the great powers in the world. The New York Times summed up this transformation at the Emperor's funeral in 1912 as: "the contrast between that which preceded the funeral car and that which followed it was striking indeed. Before it went old Japan; after it came new Japan."

After the Emperor's death in 1912, the Japanese Diet passed a resolution to commemorate his role in the Meiji Restoration. An iris garden in an area of Tokyo where Emperor Meiji and the Empress had been known to visit was chosen as the building's location for the Shinto shrine Meiji Jingū. The shrine does not contain the Emperor's grave, which is at Fushimi-momoyama south of Kyoto.

Family and issue

Soon after Meiji's ascension, the Emperor's officials presented Ichijō Haruko to him as a possible bride. The future Empress was the daughter of an Imperial official, and was three years older than the groom, who would have to wait to wed until after his genpuku (manhood ceremony). The two married on 11 January 1869. Known posthumously as Empress Shōken, she was the first Imperial Consort to receive the title of kōgō (literally, the Emperor's wife, translated as Empress Consort), in several hundred years. Although she was the first Japanese Empress Consort to play a public role, she bore no children. However, the Meiji Emperor had fifteen children by five official ladies-in-waiting. Only five of his children, a prince born to Lady Naruko (1855–1943), the daughter of Yanagiwara Mitsunaru, and four princesses born to Lady Sachiko (1867–1947), the eldest daughter of Count Sono Motosachi, lived to adulthood. Although Meiji was the last Emperor to have concubines, this function was not officially abolished until 1924.

Spouse

Concubines

Issue

Honours

National honours

• Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Rising Sun, 10 April 1875

• Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, 27 December 1876

• Founder and Sovereign of the Order of Meiji, 4 January 1888

• Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers, 4 January 1888

• Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Precious Crown, 4 January 1888

• Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Golden Kite, 12 February 1890

Foreign honours

He received the following orders and decorations:

• : Grand Cross of the Order of St. Stephen, 16 May 1881

• : Grand Cordon of the Royal Order of Leopold, 20 November 1880

• : Knight of the Order of the Elephant, 18 May 1887

• : Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 20 March 1883

• : Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, 29 May 1879; with Collar, 10 June 1895

　• : Knight of the Order of St. Hubert, 1894

　• : Grand Cross of the Order of Henry the Lion, 18 June 1907

　• Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, 1873

　• Mecklenburg: Grand Cross of the House Order of the Wendish Crown, with Crown in Ore and Collar, 2 February 1885

　• : Grand Cross of the Order of the White Falcon, 27 December 1882

　• : Grand Cross of the Order of the Württemberg Crown, 23 December 1896

• Kingdom of Greece: Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer, 13 May 1891

• : Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, with Collar, 15 March 1881

• :

　• Knight of the Order of the Annunciation, 26 July 1879

　• Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, 26 July 1879

　• Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy, 26 July 1879

• : Collar of the Order of the Golden Ruler, 5 September 1900

• : Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I, 18 February 1885

• : Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, 26 July 1881

• : Order of Distinction, 13 June 1890

• : Grand Cross of the Sash of the Three Orders, 16 April 1904

• : Order of the Double Dragon, Grade I Class I, 20 December 1898

• : Knight of the Order of St. Andrew, 5 September 1879

• : Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 14 November 1883

• Siam: Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 22 December 1887

• Sweden-Norway: Knight of the Order of the Seraphim, 11 December 1881

• : Stranger Knight of the Order of the Garter, 15 May 1906

Ancestry

Timeline and gallery

The Meiji era ushered in many far-reaching changes to the ancient feudal society of Japan. A timeline of major events might include:

• 3 November 1852: Emperor Meiji (then known as the Prince Mutsuhito Sachinomiya) is born to the imperial concubine Nakayama Yoshiko and Emperor Kōmei.

• 1853: A fleet of ships headed by Commodore Matthew Perry arrives in Japan on 8 July. Death of the shōgun Tokugawa Ieyoshi; appointment of Tokugawa Iesada as shōgun.

• 1854–55: Treaties are signed with the United States by the shogunate.

• Late 1850s–1860s: The "Sonnō jōi" movement is in full force.

• 1858: The shogunate signs treaties with the Netherlands, Imperial Russia, and Great Britain. Death of the shōgun Tokugawa Iesada; appointment of Tokugawa Iemochi as shōgun.

• March 1860: The Tairō, Ii Naosuke, is assassinated in the Sakuradamon incident.

• 11 November: Sachinomiya is formally proclaimed Crown Prince and given the personal name Mutsuhito.

• 1862: Namamugi Incident.

• 1864–65: Bombardment of Shimonoseki by British, American, French, and Dutch ships; fighting ensues between the shogunate and Chōshū.

• 1866: Death of the shōgun Tokugawa Iemochi; appointment of Tokugawa Yoshinobu as shōgun.

• 31 January 1867: Death of Emperor Kōmei from hemorrhagic smallpox, unofficial accession of Mutsuhito to the throne.

• 4 January 1868: Formal restoration of imperial rule; end of 265 years of rule by the Tokugawa shogunate.

• 12 September: Formal enthronement of the Emperor.

• 23 October: The era name is changed to Meiji.

• 6 November: The capital is moved from Kyoto Prefecture to Edo, renamed Tokyo.

• 5 November 1872: The Emperor receives the Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia.

• Late 1860s–1881: Period of rebellion and assassination in Japan.

• 11 January 1869: Marriage of the Emperor to Ichijo Haruko, thenceforth the Empress Shōken.

• 4 September: The Emperor receives The Duke of Edinburgh.

• 1871: The abolition of the han system is proclaimed.

• 1873: Edo Castle is destroyed in a conflagration; the Emperor moves to the Akasaka Palace. His first children are born, but die at birth.

• 1877: The Satsuma Rebellion.

• 1878: Assassination of Ōkubo Toshimichi.

• 31 August 1879: Prince Yoshihito, the future Emperor Taishō and the Emperor's only surviving son, is born.

• 1881: Receives the first state visit of a foreign monarch, King Kalākaua of Hawaii.

• 1889: Meiji Constitution promulgated; Itō Hirobumi becomes first Prime Minister of Japan.

• 1894: Sino-Japanese War; Japanese victory establishes Japan as a regional power.

• 29 April 1901: Became grandfather when Emperor Taishō's first son, the Prince Hirohito Michi-no-miya, future Emperor Shōwa was born.

• 1904–1905: Russo-Japanese War; Japanese victory earns Japan the status of a great power.

• 1910: The Annexation of Korea by the Empire of Japan: Korea under Japanese rule (-1945).

• 30 July 1912: The Emperor dies (aged 59).

Gallery

File:The Triumphal Grand Army Review by Kobayashi Mango (Meiji Memorial Picture Gallery).jpg|The Triumphal Grand Army Review by Kobayashi Mango

File:Conference on Drafting a Constitution by Goseda Horyu (Meiji Memorial Picture Gallery).jpg|Conference on Drafting a Constitution by Goseda Horyu

File:Visiting a Silver Mine by Gomi Seikichi (Meiji Memorial Picture Gallery).jpg|Visiting a Silver Mine by Gomi Seikichi

File:Chrysanthemum Garden Party by Nakazawa Hiromitsu (Meiji Memorial Picture Gallery).jpg|Chrysanthemum Garden Party by Nakazawa Hiromitsu

File:Ceremony for the Promulgation of the Constitution by Wada Eisaku.jpg|Ceremony for the Promulgation of the Constitution by Wada Eisaku

File:Emperor at Imperial Headquarters by Minami Kunzo (Meiji Memorial Picture Gallery).jpg|Emperor at Imperial Headquarters by Minami Kunzo

File:1903 emperors-2.JPG|Chiefs of sixteen countries in a gathering envisage a desirable future world.

File:Meiji Memorial Picture Gallery 2.jpg|Meiji Memorial Picture Gallery

Film depictions

Emperor Meiji is portrayed by Toshirō Mifune in the 1980 Japanese war drama film The Battle of Port Arthur (sometimes referred as 203 Kochi). Directed by Toshio Masuda, the film depicted the Siege of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War, and also starred Tatsuya Nakadai (as General Nogi Maresuke), and Tetsurō Tamba (as General Kodama Gentarō).

Emperor Meiji also appears in the 2003 film The Last Samurai, portrayed by Nakamura Shichinosuke II. In the film The Last Samurai the Emperor is represented as a weak, easy to handle man without hinting at the risk of coup d'état, having the pressure of the rebel shogunates that had economic interests with the United States. The Emperor's determination is only shown at the end of the movie when he enforces his ideas by breaking the treaty with the Americans, after consolidating his power after the battle.

生平

出生

嘉永4年（1851年），中山忠能的次女中山慶子被納入宮中充任典侍，成為孝明天皇的後宮，因深得天皇寵愛，不久就懷孕。嘉永5年（1852年）9月22日，睦仁出生在慶子於京都石藥師的娘家中山邸，為孝明天皇的第二皇子。7日後（9月29日），其父賜名「祐宮」，直至安政3年（1856年9月29日）才從中山邸移至宮中扶養。由於孝明天皇的後宮沒有再生育其他皇子，便在1860年7月10日（萬延元年），敕令祐宮做為女御九條夙子的「實子」，並在同年9月28日封他為親王，諱名「睦仁」。

1867年1月30日（慶應三年），統仁駕崩，年僅16歲的睦仁親王按其繼承順位成為天皇。

娶妻

1867年（慶應3年）5月18日，一條忠香三女一條勝子入宮，同年6月28日明治天皇封其為女御。明治元年12月26日（1869年2月7日）一條勝子改名為美子（はるこ），敘從三位。同年12月28日，被冊立為皇后，是謂昭憲皇太后。美子實際上長睦仁三歲，為了要避諱，官方資料改為嘉永3年（1850年）出生。最初依循中世紀以來的慣例，而設中宮職，稱號為「中宮」，隔年，將中宮職改為皇后宮職，稱號也改為皇后宮，至此之後，中宮職遭到廢除，且不再使用「中宮」稱號。

1867年11月9日（慶應三年10月14日），戊辰戰爭後，江戶幕府第15代將軍德川慶喜把政權交還天皇，結束了持續265年江戶幕府時代，於12月9日宣佈王政復古。

轉封德川家

1868年2月10日（明治元年1月17日），鳥羽伏見之戰後，參與大久保利通向總裁有栖川宮熾仁親王提議行幸大阪。同年1月23日，在太政官會議上提出遷都大阪的建議，但遭到保守派公卿的反對，1月26日建議書被否決。隨後大久保通過副總裁岩倉具視提出大阪行幸議案，保守派也接受議案，1月29日得到通過。大阪失去了一個作為成為皇居駐地的機會。

明治元年（1868年）閏4月1日，遷都大阪的建議被否決後，軍務官判事大木喬任和東征大總督府監軍江藤新平向岩倉具視提出「東西兩都」的建議書，並提出建設從江戶和京都之間的鐵路。「東西兩都」的建議書得到了認可。1868年4月6日（慶應四年3月14日），頒布《五條御誓文》為國是綱領。

由於江戶本來為德川家的封地，在1868年（明治元年）5月24日，德川家被移封駿府（靜岡）70萬石。1868年9月3日，頒布《江戶改稱為東京詔書》。詔書中天皇把江戶納為直屬封地，家臣亦被轉封，昔日江戶幕府的駐地江戶易名為「東京」，江戶城更名為東京城（東京城／とうけいじょう tōkei jō ?）。

即位為日本天皇

1868年（明治元年）8月27日正式改元「明治」，取《易經·說卦傳》之「聖人南面而聽天下、嚮明而治」之意。

第一次行幸東京

1868年（明治元年）9月20日在岩倉具視、議定中山忠能、外國官知事伊達宗城等人陪同下，明治天皇離開京都前往東京行幸。擔負警衛的是長州藩、土佐藩、備前藩、大洲藩的藩兵3,300人。1868年10月13日到達東京。10月17日明治天皇發布《御東幸萬機御親裁ノ詔書》。12月8日孝明天皇三周年忌辰祭和立後典禮的時候明治天皇才還幸京都。12月22日返回京都，並宣布在江戶舊本丸遺址上建造新皇宮。

加冕

1868年10月12日，明治天皇於京都御所進行加冕禮。

第二次行幸東京

1869年（明治2年）1月25日岩倉具視向天皇進言建議遷都。3月7日天皇第二次行幸東京，3月28日到達。這次太政官也一同來到東京，京都則設置留守官，並將皇室與中央政府自京都遷移至江戶，再將東京城更名為皇城（皇城／こうじょう kōjō ?），之後的歷代天皇皆以原江戶城做為皇居。

登基

1871年（明治4年）3月發表在東京舉行大嘗祭的決定，8月23日完成。同年11月17日在東京首次舉行大嘗祭。從此京都只是日本名義上的首都，江戶變成東京再次成為政治中心。1871年12月28日進行登基大典。

1873年（明治6年）5月，東京皇宮著火。明治天皇暫時搬到赤阪離宮居住。1875年（明治8年）4月14日，日本頒佈《漸次立憲政體樹立之詔》。1881年（明治14年）10月12日，頒布《國會開設之敕諭》。明治22年（1889年），日本頒布《大日本帝國憲法》，成為日本元首，並是日軍名義上的最高指揮官。1877年（明治10年）2月，天皇指示保留京都御所維持原樣。

建造明治宮殿

明治天皇遷居原江戶城之時，以原江戶城的西之丸御殿做為宮殿，但在1873年毀於火災；1879年，決定在西之丸御殿原址興建新宮殿，即日後所稱的明治宮殿。

繼承人出生

1879年，皇子嘉仁出生，為明治天皇與他的典侍柳原愛子所生。

明治宮殿豊明殿

1888年（明治21年），明治宮殿落成，皇城再更名為宮城，至1948年更名為皇居至今。同年10月24日皇后美子也移蹕東京，此後明治天皇就以東京為新居所。1889年（明治22年），日本的皇室典範規定天皇即位典禮和大嘗祭必須在京都舉行。

統治臺灣

1894年8月1日，中日甲午戰爭爆發。1895年2月，簽訂《馬關條約》，大日本帝國在此條約中獲得了臺灣和澎湖群島的主權以及二億兩白銀的巨額賠款。明治天皇成為臺灣最高統治者。

1891年（明治24年），京都御所改稱為京都皇宮。1909年（明治42年），登極令（昭和22年廢除）規定大嘗祭的齋田，京都以東以南為悠紀，以西以北為主基。

統治朝鮮

1905年第二次日韓協約之後，韓國成為日本的保護國；1909年7月日本內閣會議決定合併韓國的方針，1909年10月26日伊藤博文被韓國刺客安重根暗殺之後，主張立刻合併韓國的一派成為日本對朝鮮政策的主流。

1910年8月22日，簽訂《日韓合併條約》，大韓帝國皇帝純宗將皇位及朝鮮半島全部的統治權讓予睦仁，明治天皇成為大韓皇帝。條約將朝鮮併入版圖；此舉象徵朝鮮歷史上長久做為獨立國家地位的中斷，大韓帝國宣告滅亡，以及朝鮮日據時期的開始。《日韓合併條約》使朝鮮半島成為日本領土的一部份，大日本帝國的韓國統監府改制為朝鮮總督府，成為統治朝鮮半島的機關。

逝世

1912年（明治45年）7月30日，明治天皇因為糖尿病並發尿毒症在東京去世，享年59歲。去世後，靈柩由火車運送經東海道本線運到京都府，葬於京都市伏見桃山陵。1914年（大正3年），昭憲皇太后去世，日本政府建立明治神宮。

健康

家族遺傳疾病史

由於日本皇室先前的近親通婚記錄，被部分日本文獻質疑其隱疾為近親通婚所導致的遺傳性疾病所引發的。一說睦仁和父親統仁一樣，有著下顎前突症的缺陷，下頜不正常地前突，伴有嚴重的牙齒下墜。睦仁的精神狀況正常，不像嘉仁一樣出現精神問題，但是他與5位側室生的15個孩子中，有10個夭折。皇太子嘉仁親王（後來的大正天皇）是明治天皇唯一活至成年的男嗣，但是身心孱弱，有腦膜炎、糖尿病、腦血栓、精神病。

家庭

• 皇后：一條美子（昭憲皇太后，1849年5月9日－1914年4月9日），左大臣一條忠香三女。無子女

• 權典侍：（緋桃典侍，1853年2月3日－1873年9月22日），權大納言葉室長順次女

　• 長子：稚瑞照彥尊（1873），死產。光子在產後四日病逝。

• 權典侍：（小櫻典侍，1856年3月19日－1873年11月14日），權大納言外孫女、養女，少納言東坊城夏長次女。

　• 長女：（1873），死產。夏子在產後翌日病逝。

• 典侍：柳原愛子（早蕨典侍，1859年6月26日－1943年10月16日），權中納言柳原光愛次女

　• 次女：梅宮薰子內親王（1875－1876），早夭

　• 次子：建宮敬仁親王（1877－1878），早夭

　• 三子：明宮嘉仁親王（1879－1926），後為第123代・大正天皇

• 權典侍：千種任子（花松權典侍，1855年7月19日－1944年2月1日），子爵長女

　• 三女：滋宮韶子內親王（1881－1883），早夭

　• 四女：增宮章子內親王（1883），早夭

• 權典侍：園祥子（小菊典侍，1867年12月23日－1947年7月7日），伯爵園基祥次女

　• 五女：（1886－1887），早夭

　• 四子：昭宮猷仁親王（1887－1888），早夭

　• 六女：（1888－1940），竹田宮恆久王妃

　• 七女：周宮房子內親王（1890－1974），北白川宮成久王妃

　• 八女：（1891－1933），朝香宮鳩彥王妃

　• 五子：滿宮輝仁親王（1893－1894），早夭

　• 九女：（1896－1978），東久邇宮稔彥王妃

　• 幼女：（1897－1899），早夭

• 猶子：華頂宮博厚親王（1875－1883），華頂宮博經親王獨子，早夭

系譜